Compare and Contrast each of the diseases Essay

Compare and Contrast each of the diseases - Essay Example Both Parkinson’s (PD) and Alzheimer’s (AD) diseases are common neurodegenerative disorders (Beal, 2005). While the prevalence of AD increases with age, there is not much increase in case of PD. AD has a prevalence of about 1% among those between 65 to 69 years of age (Hy & Keller, 2000) while PD has a prevalence of 0.5 to 1% in this age group (Nussbaum & Ellis, 2003). However, the prevalence of AD is 40 to 50% among those 95 years of age and over (Hy & Keller, 2000) and that of PD is only 3% in those 80 years of age and older (Nussbaum & Ellis, 2003). Both these conditions result due to loss of neurons in parts of brain. AD particularly affects neurons in the cortex and the hippocampus (Mc Khann, Drachman, Folstein, Katzman, Price & Stadlan, 2003) while PD affects neurons in the substantia nigra (Nussbaum & Ellis, 2003). AD presents mainly with progressive impairment in memory. There is impairment of judgement, decision making, concentration, orientation and language. T he patient can present with agitation, psychosis, depression, apathy, disinhibition, anxiety, delusions, purposeless behavior, and disorders of sleep and appetite (Cummings & Back, 1998). Of all these, agitation is the most common symptom and psychosis is seen in 30-60% of the patients. The most common behavioural changes are personality alterations (Cumming & Back, 1998). The destruction of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain and the resulting deficit in central cholinergic transmission is the cause for characteristic cognitive and non-cognitive symptoms in AD (Cummings & Back, 1998). Another theory as far as the cause of symptoms in AD is concerned is Glutamate excitotoxicity. Excessive activation of NMDA receptors by glutamate is said to cause neuronal death in Alzheimers disease due to increases in intracellular Ca2+ (Bleich, Romer, Wiltfang & Kornhuber, 2003). PD

'Love' Marriage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

'Love' Marriage - Essay Example Arranged marriages are when the parents or the adults of the man or woman choose the spouse for them to whom they will marry; with consent or in severe societies without consent. Arranged marriage have been accepted almost everywhere throughout the history, but now as the trends have changed, they have eventually ceased to predominate the Western societies, even though it has been held that they had been persisted in the aristocratic society up to the 20th century. Now, the usual view of the arranged marriages comes from the eastern culture which was not always so. The history shows and proves how western culture had been following arranged marriages too, for example most of the kings and queens of England had gone through arranged marriages. Love marriages are the new and modern type of marriages that are being greatly followed now. The rise of love marriages have not dominated the arranged marriages but have definitely caused an issue on which marriages are usually talked about. The love marriages do not go to a history of culture and society, but has greatly influenced the societies since a few decades. Love marriages allow the man and a woman to choose their spouse themselves and marry them. Though there seems nothing wrong with this view, there still are many conflicts arising between the two marriages. These conflicts are usually based on the views of the societies and individuals rather on cultural differences or facts to justify them. As arranged marriages have a history that goes to the kings and queens of England, these historic events show some justification to the rise of love and arranged marriage conflicts. The arranged marriages tradition was strong in these western societies until King George V broke the tradition by marrying a commoner. Along with that, the more and more exposure of the generations to education and the urge to think beyond the traditional boundaries created the hook

The Ambition and Idealism of Benito Mussolini Essay Example for Free

The Ambition and Idealism of Benito Mussolini Essay The rise and fall of the Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini in Italy during the early half of the twentieth century demonstrate the story of a man’s vision pursued, but eventually doomed. The reign of Mussolini in Italy is one remembered in history as a violent suppression of human rights in name of a ruthless ambition to revive the past glory of Italy and ultimately (re)create an Italian empire (Smith). Born in a small Italian village in the district of Predappio, his beginnings were humble (Roberts, 2006). However, his educated parents gave him an education which broadened his view of the world and led him to be dissatisfied and restless about the opportunities a man like him could have in Predappio. His father, who was a blacksmith, actively participated in Socialist concerns and voiced out his opinion against dubious policies that affected their labor (Roberts, 2006). His mother, who worked as a schoolteacher in a small village for a meager salary, taught the young Benito discipline and focus. He was educated in a strict Catholic school which proved to be unsuitable for him because of his restlessness, inclination to rebellion and uncontrolled and violent temper (Haugen, 2007). After transferring to a different school, Mussolini blossomed into his adolescence with a great aptitude and flair for writing and oration. He became interested in politics, poetry and literature. Around 1902, he attempted to work as a schoolteacher but failed miserably at it, so he decided to migrate to Switzerland to find opportunity and also to escape the military draft during that time in Italy (Roberts, 2006). Upon his return to Italy in 1904 and the subsequent pardon of all draft dodgers in exchange for their enlistment in the army, Mussolini realized that his future was in the country of his birth (Roberts, 2006). His appetite for adventure, socialism, journalism and politics landed him an editorial job in Trent near the Italian-Austrian border where he asserted and promoted his Socialist beliefs. He also trumpeted the pride of being Italian and spoke about the â€Å"Latin genius and courage† (Roberts, 2006, 19). After being evicted from that district because of its anti-socialists sentiments, he moved to Forli near his birthplace to work for a socialist newspaper and engaged himself in more political work (â€Å"Benito Mussolini†). It was in Forli where he was elected as the secretary for the Socialists. His popularity grew as he became more voracious in his writings and speeches. He drew support from his radical decisions such as the strike he organized in Forli which resulted to his imprisonment (â€Å"Benito Mussolini†). When World Ward I broke out, Mussolini opposed the participation of Italy claiming that he would only support class war and threatened a proletariat revolution if Italy continued their support (Smith). But, he retracted soon after and encouraged young men to enlist; this decision resulted in his expulsion from the Socialist party (â€Å"Benito Mussolini†). He formed the Fascist party through the establishment of a pro-war group called Fasci dAzione Rivoluzionaria (Smith). However, Mussolini failed to secure the seats he needed in senate to gain power and control. After the breakdown of a weak alliance with the dominant party Popolare, Mussolini decided that he won’t win the seats democratically, so he staged a siege in Rome which ended in the invitation of the king for him to build a new government (Smith). It was at this point as the head of the National Fascist Party that he established himself as dictator, Il Duce (â€Å"Mussolini†). From that point on he would demand blind trust from the people after insisting through propaganda that he was after all their â€Å"infallible, irreplaceable duce† (Griffin, 2000, 31). As a dictator, Mussolini knew that absolute control was key in ensuring the attainment of his goals. He formed a powerful military force and a secret police to vanquish insubordination (â€Å"Mussolini†). He converted the state economy into â€Å"corporate state† wherein all Italians in professional organizations were put in corporations controlled by the central government (â€Å"Mussolini,† Smith). Propaganda was crucial in Mussolini’s career as dictator. He spent considerable time in planning and propagating his ideas through the press, films and school books (Smith). His training as a journalist and orator helped him broadcast his imperial ideas. To proselytize younger generation, he banned history books in school and indoctrinated them with the tenets of fascism (â€Å"Benito Mussolini†). Under his rule, he abolished the parliament and rewrote the laws to ensure the loyalty of every citizen to the Fascist party (Smith). He tempered his ruthlessness with popular decisions such as the approval of Vatican’s independence. However, the people’s support to him started to wane as he made erratic, unplanned and senseless military and political decisions. In an effort to expand Italy’s territory, he waged war in Ethiopia; this was met with worldwide protest (â€Å"Mussolini†). After the League of Nations condemned his imperialist decisions, he forged allegiance with the Nazi party although he previously opposed Hitler because of Mussolini’s fear of losing Austria to the Germans. His allegiance to the Nazi marked the beginning of his gradual downfall as he supported the World War waged by Hitler (â€Å"Benito Mussolini†). Further, he spread anti-semitism in Italy which Lindemann (2007, 1) pertains to as an â€Å"opportunistic, unsystematic and unprincipled† decision. As the Allied powers encroached German territories, Italy’s weak military force gave in to the pressure of defeat. Mussolini sought refuge under the German forces and attempted to escape to Switzerland. However, anti-Fascist rebels seized their vehicle and got custody of Mussolini and twelve other Fascist party officials (Smith). They were summarily executed and their corpses were hung in public where the people ridiculed and mocked their dead bodies. The ambition for power and control and its inevitable disintegration ended the twenty year reign of Mussolini in Italy. Some historians claim that with the way Mussolini ruled Italy, it is doubtful whether he has as much idealism in him as his speech and propaganda portrayed (Griffin 2000). Whether it his idealism or his ambition which motivated his decisions, the scars of his dictatorial rule in Italy will remain in history as one of the deplorable outcomes of fascist dictatorial rule. References â€Å"Benito Mussolini. † (2008). ThinkQuest Library. Retrieved 30 January 2009 from http://library. thinkquest. org/17120/data/bios/mussolini/ Griffin, R. (2000). How fascist was Mussolini. New Perspective 9. 1 pp. 31-35. Haugen, B. (2007). Benito Mussolini: Fascist italian dictator. Minneapolis, Minn. : Compass Point Books Lindemann, A. (2007) Benito Mussolini. UCSB History Department. Retrieved 30 January 2009 from http://www. history. ucsb. edu/syllabi/spring07/Lindemann/Mussolini2. pdf â€Å"Mussolini, Benito Amicare Andrea† (1999). Who’s Who in the Twentieth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford Reference Online. Retrieved 30 January 2009 from http://www. oxfordreference. com/views/ENTRY. html? subview=Mainentry=t47. e1187 Roberts, J. (2006). Benito Mussolini. Minneapolis: Lerner Publishing. Smith, D. M. Benito Mussolini. Groiler Online. Retrieved 30 January 2009 from http://www. grolier. com/wwii/wwii_mussolini. html

Exploring The Concept Of Cubism Art Essay

Exploring The Concept Of Cubism Art Essay Cubism was one of the most influential art movements of the 20th century. It took place between 1907 and about 1914. The innovators of the Cubist movement were Pablo Picasso (Spanish, 1881 1973) and Georges Braque (French, 1882 1963). Cubism was one of the most significant changes in ideas in the history of art. It allowed for the development of many of the abstract modern art movements in areas such as Futurism and Constructivism. The one of the main characteristics of Cubism would be the presenting of a three dimensional object as an abstract form on a two dimensional surface. In order to achieve this, objects are defragmented, analysed, and reconstructed in an abstract form. The shapes are flattened onto the two dimensional surface of the canvas so that different angles of the object can be seen at the same time. Another distinct feature of Cubist paintings would be the breaking up and interlocking of background and object in geometric arrangement, creating a shallow sense of space. Both Picasso and Braque, who were living in Paris at the time, began the Cubist movement. They met in late 1907 and began developing the idea of Cubism in their works by using complex patterns of defragmented objects, continuous outlines, and a monochromatic colour scheme. The term Cubism can be sourced back to a conversation between French art critic Louis Vauxcelles and Henri Matisse in 1908. Matisse described Braque s paintings, which he had submitted to the Salon d Automne, to have little cubes . However, it was Vauxcelles who coined the term Cubism in a review about the Salon des Independants just a few months later. Cubism can be divided into two phases: Analytical Cubism and Synthetical Cubism. In the early phase, starting in 1907, objects were broken up, analysed, and put back together in an abstracted form. The use of the technique of representing various sides of an object at one time defined the work as Analytical Cubism. In 1912, the second phase came about, when Picasso and Braque began creating papiers colles. The technique involved pasting various types of paper in their work, which characterised Synthetic Cubism. The prominent influences on the development of Cubism were Cezannes later work and African sculptures. In Cezannes later work, Picasso and Braque admired his concept of simplifying objects by seeing them as basic shapes such as cylinders, spheres, and cones. By exploring these concepts further, representing objects various viewpoints at the same time, they revolutionised how objects could be visualised in art. In the beginning of the 20th century, Europe was discovering art from exotic continents such as Africa and Asia. Artists, such as Picasso, were inspired by the primitive and simplistic styles of the foreign cultures. Picasso had first seen African art when he visited the ethnographic museum in Paris in 1907. We can see its influence clearly in Les Demoiselles dAvignon (1907), the precursor to Cubism. In his painting, he deconstructed and rearranged the faces of two of women in his painting to appear like African masks. In doing this he created a direct link between the movement and its inspiration. The Cubist artists developed on the ideas of fauvism, the art movement that had gone before it. The Fauvists wanted to simplify art by going back to basics. They did this by using distorted images, bright sections of colour and flat patterns. Their name Les Fauves means wild beasts in French, referring to their violent approach to their compositions. Cubists took this idea a step further by using straight lines and geometric patterns. Analytical Cubism is one of the two main parts of Cubism. It was developed between 1908 and 1912 by Picasso and Braque. During this time they studied natural forms and deconstructed the forms into basic geometric parts on the two-dimensional plane of the canvas. Their only use of colour was a monochromatic scheme of greys and ochre. Many of their compositions by neutral colours that had no relations to the colour of the object they were depicting. Instead of focusing of colour, they concentrated on representing the natural world with shapes such as cylinders, spheres and cones. They used varying shades to create light and dark sections of their works to give their works a three dimensional quality. Examples of the early analytic phase would be Braques Houses at LEstaque (1908) and Picasso s Girl with a Mandolin. Synthetic Cubism was the second part of Cubism. It was developed by Picasso, Braque, and other cubist artists between 1912 and 1919. There was a noticeable change in the works of the Cubist artists in the second phase of the movement. Synthetic cubism is characterised by the introduction of collage and papier coll , which allowed them to explore the new effects of depth. The technique of pasting coloured or printed paper fragments, usually newspaper clippings or sheet music, in the paintings of the Cubists marked the first use of collage in fine art, and the basis for all subsequent collage techniques in the years that followed. The use of collage refined the idea of using found objects , objects artists came across by chance, and making them part of their compositions. The idea behind it was that art could be found in the chaos of everyday modern life. Examples of the synthetic phase would be Picasso s Still Life with Chair Caning (1912), and his piece entitled Pipe, Glass, Bottle o f Vieux Marc (1914). However, it is important to note that dividing of the Cubist movement into analytic and synthetic phases were not used by the artists at the time. The terms were coined by critics of the period. By categorising the Cubist works, it imposes rigid distinctions in the method of the Cubists. However, their techniques used in each phase can be seen throughout Cubist art. Braque was initially involved in the Fauvist art movement, but he moved away from this style in 1908 when he rediscovered Paul Cezanne and met Picasso. Braque responded to Picassos Les Demoiselles DAvignon by painting his Grand Nude in the cubist style of geometrisation of form and new spatial relationships . In 1909 Braque and Picasso started working together, using their various influences to develop a whole new way of depicting form and space. Although Braque started out painting landscapes with Picasso, they soon found the advantages of painting still-life s instead, such as them being able to see multiple views of an object as opposed to a landscape. They became close friends and worked closely together up until the First World War in 1914. The outbreak of war broke up their artistic collaboration as Braque was enlisted in the French Army and had to leave Paris. In the period between World War I and World War II, Braque adapted a more relaxed and open approach to Cubism. He was bolder in his use of colour and was less calculating in his depiction of objects. However, he was still powerfully dedicated to using the cubist techniques of fragmentation and simultaneous perspective. Before beginning the Cubist period of his art, Picasso became interested in African art, which was currently being brought into Paris museums due to the expanding of the French empire. These exotic artefacts inspired his work during his African-influenced period (1908-1909) and into his Analytic Cubism (1909-1912). During this time, Picasso was also inspired by the works of Cezanne. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Cezanne developed the idea of painting a painting for what it was a two dimensional flat surface. From the Renaissance up until this point, artists had been trying to create the illusion of three dimensions within a painting, as if it were a window. Another technique of his, that greatly inspired Picasso, was to present multiple angles of an object all at once in a painting. His idea behind it was that the eye viewing the object does not stay fixed on one angle of the object, but instead moves around and receives various perspectives. When Picasso and Braque were introduced in late 1907, they formed a close bond due to their shared interests in Cezanne and the Cubist techniques Picasso was experimenting with in his painting Les Demoiselles dAvignon . In the painting, Picasso depicted the faces of the five women to resemble Iberian masks. The bodies of the women are angular and not in proportion. The changing perspectives, unnatural proportions and flat, mask-like faces in the painting shocked and confused it s viewers at first. However, these motifs were explored and developed by Picasso and Braque throughout the Cubist movement and a new style was born. At times during this period, the work of Picasso and Braque was so similar that they themselves could not tell them apart. Picasso, in his examination of primitive sculpture and masks, arrived at the conclusion that the faces consisted of a quantity of clear shapes placed side by side. He figured that the features of the face that divide up the face should be seen as distinct sections. As Picasso progressed through the Cubism movement, he began to paint just one object at a time, painting it from several different perspectives at the same time. Picasso was successful in keeping a balance between naturalism and abstraction in his work. Before his cubist phase, he painted predominantly natural compositions, but as he explored his Cubist ideas, his work became more abstract. The objects he depicted during the period were of distorted proportions and broken into fragments, but because he used simple objects, they were generally recognisable. Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler was a gallery owner and art critic during the Cubist movement and was largely responsible for the broadcasting of Cubism as a style of art. When Picasso and Braque were producing their Cubist works in Paris, there were but a few opportunities for their works to be shown, usually the spring and autumn salon exhibitions. However, in 1910, Kahnweiler who was also an art dealer sent works by Picasso and Braque to avant-garde exhibitions outside of France. This began a growing acceptance for Cubist art around Europe at the time. To conclude, the main features of the Cubist art movement are displaying objects from multiple viewpoints at the same time and intersecting the surfaces to create a shallow space. The Cubist art movement revolutionalised how space and form could be visualised in art. The movement, created by Picasso and Braque, paved the way for future art movements to be abstract and began the re-examination of how space and form interact that changed the course of Western art.

Inner and outer beauty in Dorian Gray Essay examples -- essays researc

The term ‘beauty’ may have very relative significance. Something can be beautiful for us, but ugly for other people. The external beauty of a person is often the first thing that we pay attention to. This is the result of the association of beauty with good and ugliness with evil. Through the outer appearance we make a general opinion about a given person. Such a way of thinking may be very misleading. In order to get to know the person we need to look to the inside – into the soul. This is the place where the real beauty and ugliness are hidden. The notion of inner and outer beauty is perfectly presented in the novel ‘The Picture of Dorian Gray’ by Oscar Wilde. The story described in this book shows how the external attractiveness influences people’s behavior and corrupts the inner beauty. The plot situated in the XIX England perfectly describes the higher class of this period. Shallow and two-faced society is concentrated only on the esthetical values of the surrounding. Youth and beauty are the most precious and cultivated things. Even the worst deeds are forgotten if your beauty is extraordinary. The main character, Dorian Gray is an example of a person from a higher class. This twenty-year old and extremely handsome young man is regarded among society as an ideal of beauty. His Physical attractiveness draws the attention of a very talented painter Basil Hallward. He decides to immortalize Dorian’s beauty and paints his portrait. In the meantime Dorian meets cynical nobleman, Lord Henry Wotton. Just like everyone else, Lord Henry is astonished by the prettiness and innocence of Dorian. Henry is a charming talker, and his views concerning beauty are the same as the views of other members of aristocracy. He cherishes it above all considering it as the most important thing in life. The talk with Lord Henry makes Dorian to think about the elapsing of the physical attractiveness. He realizes that some day his charm and youth will disappear and he will not be able to live a careless life anymore. This thought scares him very much especially when he sees the finished portrait, painted by Basil. He makes a whish, which will change his life forever: ‘If it were I who was to be always young and the picture that was to grow old! For that I would give anything! Yes, there is nothing in the world I would not give! I would give my soul for that’ (Chapter 2). Dorian i... ...s primeval looks, showing his magnificent outer beauty. The book is full of allegories and illusions. Even the title has a deeper meaning. The word ‘dorian’ means ‘golden’ in ancient Greek. The linking of two colors: golden and gray perfectly reflects complexity of the main character. Dorian is an example of a Narcissist, a person who is in love with his own look. His glamorous good looks contrasts with the rotten and evil inside. The story shows how shallow people can be while judging others. Another interesting point is the misleading statement that the beauty always comes together with goodness. The painting which serves as a mirror of Dorian’s soul perfectly reflects the inevitably changes in his character, while the beauty of his face is unchanged. No one beliefs in the evil stories about him because of his outstanding outer appearance,’ The Picture of Dorian Gray’ is a timeless story about what is really important in life, namely our inside. Only by knowing our hidden emotions we can re ally judge whether the person is good or bad. Bibliography: Varty,A.(1998).A Preface to Oscar Wilde,Longman,NY Cornish,F.H.;Wilde,Oscar(1993).The Picture of Dorian Gray,Heinemann,Oxford

Antigone :: essays research papers

Greek Tragedy: Sophocles’ Antigone   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The struggle between right and wrong, the demands between family and that of the government, and the ultimate struggle between divine law and those made by man is the center of Sophocles’ Antigone. Through this expression of Greek drama, a sense of what life must have been like in the time of Sophocles comes across. In his world, women are subjugated and supposed to be silent spectators to the world around them as men’s search for power leads to incredible acts against both human and divine law. Antigone is a woman who firmly believed in these divine laws and whose actions changed the course of Thebian history.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The story of Antigone begins much sooner than the famous play makes known. It is filled with tragedy. Antigone is the daughter of the late king of Thebes, Oedipus. A seer told Oedipus’ own father, at the birth of his son that the king would be slain by this only son. He would then seize the throne of Thebes. He therefore banished Oedipus in order to maintain power. Years later the omen would come true. Oedipus would seize the Thebian throne, kill the king, and take Jocasta, the late king’s wife as his own. Unbeknownst to Oedipus that the man he had slain was his father and that his new wife was in fact his mother. When he learned of the truth, Oedipus blinded himself and Jocasta committed suicide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Together, Oedipus and Jocasta were to have four children. Their two sons were named Polynices and Eteocles while the two daughters were named Ismene and Antigone. In the palace, Oedipus stayed with his children. It was agreed upon that Polynices and Eteocles would govern the city of Thebes in alternate years, but when their quarrels and disobedience were too much to bear with, their father placed a curse upon them. Under the omen, Oedipus said that the siblings would destroy one another. The first year of rule fell upon Eteocles. When it seemed that he would not give up power, Polynices went to Argos and prepared an invasion with the ruler of the land. As a result of the invasion, the two brothers would be dead, each by the other’s hand. Power over Thebes would then fall on the brother of the late Jocasta, Creon.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being a man who was loyal to Thebes, Creon’s first order of business was to banish any traitors and forbid the burial of Polynices for invading the city with â€Å"foreigners. Antigone :: essays research papers Greek Tragedy: Sophocles’ Antigone   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The struggle between right and wrong, the demands between family and that of the government, and the ultimate struggle between divine law and those made by man is the center of Sophocles’ Antigone. Through this expression of Greek drama, a sense of what life must have been like in the time of Sophocles comes across. In his world, women are subjugated and supposed to be silent spectators to the world around them as men’s search for power leads to incredible acts against both human and divine law. Antigone is a woman who firmly believed in these divine laws and whose actions changed the course of Thebian history.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The story of Antigone begins much sooner than the famous play makes known. It is filled with tragedy. Antigone is the daughter of the late king of Thebes, Oedipus. A seer told Oedipus’ own father, at the birth of his son that the king would be slain by this only son. He would then seize the throne of Thebes. He therefore banished Oedipus in order to maintain power. Years later the omen would come true. Oedipus would seize the Thebian throne, kill the king, and take Jocasta, the late king’s wife as his own. Unbeknownst to Oedipus that the man he had slain was his father and that his new wife was in fact his mother. When he learned of the truth, Oedipus blinded himself and Jocasta committed suicide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Together, Oedipus and Jocasta were to have four children. Their two sons were named Polynices and Eteocles while the two daughters were named Ismene and Antigone. In the palace, Oedipus stayed with his children. It was agreed upon that Polynices and Eteocles would govern the city of Thebes in alternate years, but when their quarrels and disobedience were too much to bear with, their father placed a curse upon them. Under the omen, Oedipus said that the siblings would destroy one another. The first year of rule fell upon Eteocles. When it seemed that he would not give up power, Polynices went to Argos and prepared an invasion with the ruler of the land. As a result of the invasion, the two brothers would be dead, each by the other’s hand. Power over Thebes would then fall on the brother of the late Jocasta, Creon.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being a man who was loyal to Thebes, Creon’s first order of business was to banish any traitors and forbid the burial of Polynices for invading the city with â€Å"foreigners.

Adult Learning Techniques and Methods Application for successful

Many organizations in today’s competitive business world focus on training to enhance capacity development to their staff in order to compete effectively. The reason that underlies this competition is the emergence of knowledge based economy that put organizations to task and compete on the basis of knowledge.Therefore, many companies focus on building and equipping their staff with necessary skills and knowledge. It is therefore, a daunting task to design, develop and plan for the workforce training intervention; since are different from children in regard to learning.As a result of complexity in instructional approach for adult learning, many training intervention for the Human Resource Development programs fail to give the desired results or changes intended by training intervention.The area of approach to design of training intervention is an outstanding concern because it determines the outcome of those training programs. In this regard, this paper shall look at best trai ning or learning design to be embraced while developing a training intervention for developing workforce. This is because adult learners process information differently than one another and justify special approach.IntroductionOrganizational learning usually aims at capacity development of the organization, individual and occupational. Campbell (2007), defines organizational capacity as the organizational potential to perform that is enabled by its ability to define and realize its goals and objectives in a more sustainable and relevant manner.Therefore, organization capacity development shall refer to the processes by which an organization effectively formulate and achieve organizational goals. In order to achieve the desired Organizational capacity through learning, training should focus to realize the needs and goals of the organization.Capacities emphasized in organizational learning are: adaptive capacity that enables organization to learn and change in response to operational environment dynamism; and operational that aims at equipping the organization workforce up-dated skills and knowledge to carryout daily activities of the organization (Baud, Gerick 1999, 131).Powers (2002), states that in order for the organizational learning to bear fruit and be meaningful, process of learning should be emphasized to ensure quality instruction to the adults in learning session.A quote by Campbell, (2007), says â€Å"many organizational facilitators have failed to give quality instruction to learners during organization’s workshops, seminars and trainings because their content and methodological approach do not match the needs of the learners† Therefore, in order to have a meaningful and useful training.A variety of learning techniques and methods are necessary when training and developing adult learners because adult learners process information differently than one another. In this line of thought, the paper shall look at these techniques that should be employed to carter for adult differences in processing the information.Learning objectivesLearning objectives are important because they guide the instructor on the designing, planning and developing training that is relevant to the needs of the trainees in relation to agenda of meeting the organizational goal. Taylor (2003); notes that good learning objectives should be derived from need assessment conducted.Importantly, learning objectives should be; realistic, measurable, time conscious, and take into account the needs of the learner. Using two sets of objectives: general objective depicts changes or competencies expected after training; while the specific objective describes what the trainees should be able to do after undergoing the training, the instructor should formulate content, method and aids to be used (Kraiger, Salas, 1997, p. 272).Organizational learningIn order to have a successful and relevant Organizational training should involve identification of the target gr oup; learning mode choice; and selection and sequencing of the contents.Identification of the training target group: training intervention will be rendered fruitless if the trainees do not put into practice the training when they go back to their functions resulting from wrong choice of the participants (Baud, Geric, 1999, p. 95).Therefore correct participant’s choice is necessary. For example, in some cases the entire department may be selected for training where there are changes in the processes regarding to that department. While in other cases, key person is involved for training for specific task or skills like C.E.O. or managerTraining mode choice: it’s important to consider sheer volume and learning task complexity that can be used to direct the choice for distance or onsite classroom. While mass vs. distributed training, since research indicates that training instruction under distributed practice is retained more and longer.Selection and sequencing of the con tent: the content should be strictly based on the learning objectives in consideration with job and task analysis. The difficult task should be allocated appropriate and sufficient time. Additionally, learning topic should not come in ad-hoc manner since it may hamper learning.Rest duration is important and dependant on the memory warm-up and psychological fatigue. In relation to rest duration, Armmons (1947), research work indicated that performance efficient may rise between 18%-43% with rest duration of 5-20 minutes after an intensive learning by trainers (Baud, Gerick 1999, p. 294).Training Activities, techniques and methodsThis is central to learning by using of instruction strategy and approach. According to Kraiger and Salas (1997), instructional strategies are set of tools, contents and methodologies which are combined to create an instructional approach.In this connection four best principles should be used to create an efficient instructional strategy: relevancy of concept s to be learned, demonstration of the altitudes, knowledge and skills to be learnt by learners; and feedback provision to instructors after practice and during practicing the skills attained.The instructional strategy selection is dependant on the instructor, but should choose a variety of strategies to accommodate content delivery, objectives, materials or aids used, and aim to maintain interest of learning.   Adults learns best by doing and working in a non-threatening, participators, respectful and informal environment.Principles of adult learning useful for instruction designIn regard to performance improvement through learning, there are six key principles to enhance successful adult learning. These principles integrate the perspectives, models and theories provided by great scholars like Kolb, Knowles, Mezirow and Freire on their take on effective learning.Participation: In learning, trainees learn more and remember the content of the subject matter when they are actively en gaged in learning process. While skills best develop by doing and engaging in practical exercise, group work, simulation, games and discussion.Furthermore participation can be enhanced by facilitating a collaborative environment, role sharing and use of friendly dialogue to encourage sharing of experiences and knowledge. Thus by enhancing positive altitudes and learning atmosphere it corresponds to participation boosting to trainers.Understanding: Greater understanding can be enhanced when training starts at the level of the trainee as provided by training needs assessment.Practices and learning activities that can increase understanding to trainers are appropriate use of vocabulary according to trainers level, use of trainers language, avoidance of unnecessary technical jargon (Celinski, 1983), reformulation of ideas in trainers own words, use of real life examples provided by the trainer and use of learners experience as examples. The checking mechanism for the learners understand ing is through use of short questions.Feedback: Feedbacks are important part of construct process for learning. Through feedback the trainees get a sense of their progression towards learning objectives and if not, they strategize how to get there. Feedback should be provided shortly after instruction to enable learners relate to processes they have used.Additionally, learners should be given good reacceptance on their feedback to encourage them to try again. For instance, instructor should use encouraging term like good trail or good attempt even if the trainee has given a wrong feedback.Interest: In training intervention, learner’s interest comes as a result of learner’s intrinsic motivation. Whereby, the trainee should be made to feel the need to learn and own the goal of training is likely to increase urge to participate and be more engaged.To achieve trainees interest in training intervention, learning objectives must be relevant to their needs, Kolb (1979) emphas ize that adult learners interest is embedded in their personal histories, vision of who they are and what the want to do. Therefore, to capture the interest of trainees, learning methods should integrate work and studies, theory and practice will provide a more productive learning undertaking by the workforce.In addition to this, adult will only remember or have interest to learn what they consider useful to them and has pleasure to learn it. Therefore, learning should be cantered on the content relevancy in accordance to what adult’s value with more pragmatic examples like marriage, divorce, parenting, taking a new job, losing a job (Powers, 2002, p. 241).Emphasis: Emphasis is attained by focusing the attention of learners on the most important points that will be useful to make a trainee remember easily. This emphasis should be used to crucial points. Through instructors, repetition, reformulation, examples, summarizing or asking question gives emphasis to main ideas desire d to be attained by use of didactic aids and exercises.This by giving more attention and time to certain concepts, it allows learners to practice and retain skills and knowledge. (Baldwin, Ford 1998: 217), state that when a trainee is not able to recall content after a training session, the content is likely to have extend the long term memory, as a result it will not be retained.Results: Organizational training intervention aimed at capacity development should make learners feel successful after the training session and enable the employee to plan how to effect and use the skills and knowledge attained in organizational working environment.As a result this learner’s confidences in his or her ability to cope with work task to a great extend supports performance improving to an individual and organization collectively.The instructor can scaffold the trainees by keeping them informed on their progress, congratulating for good work and more accelerated by issuance of a participa tory certificate to the trainees, the certificate will put employee in task of reflecting the theoretical value of certificate to practical world (Baud, Geric, 1999, p.103).Teaching methods and techniquesThe instructional methods designated to have a positive impact to an adult learner, should aim at fulfilling the special characteristics of the adult learner.These characteristics are geared towards achievement of LEARN (Leadership, Experience, Appeal, Respect and Novel Styles) that makes them realize their need to gain something; to be something; to do something; and to save something in an event of learning (Goldstein, 2003, p. 219). The following general techniques are proposed.Icebreaker: good and integrated introduction to achieve a friendly and a relaxed atmosphere in a learning session. Done through adjourning the learning for five minutes and for each member to introduce himself to the person on his right by giving name, where he comes from, hobbies, and interests. Researche rs have found out that icebreaker breaks down the formality of meetings that tends to force shy members into deeper silence.Group Discussion: it is evident that people enjoy learning, themselves more when are engaged in discussion groups and can remember well the information discussed in the group.The advantage to the instructor is that he or she has a quicker way to obtain the views of all members. The learners shall have the opportunity to participate in the discussion. Furthermore, learners consider that they are contributing to the goal of progress and that their contribution is being recognized.Brainstorming: This is a technique used by the instructor to literally storm a problem to achieve the maximum number of ideas in the shortest possible. The purpose of brainstorming is to stimulate the creative ability of the trainees and improves creative powers.Case Study: employing case studies that describes a situation that contains a number of problems and it requires a solution. Th is gives the trainees a basis and opportunity for studying a situation, analyzing its important aspects, and reaching various conclusions.Team presentations: the importance of team presentation is to create a sense of team building and provides an ideal learning and review experience. As a result, the learners shall be able to understand the issue and convey it in a creative and entertainingLearning games: this is an activity that is meant to complement the learning experience. Inclusion of a game into a training module allows the trainer to drive home a point in another fashion, thereby increasing the probability of retention and application. Ideally, content retention of new material or a new skill will be more likely if the trainee hears it more than once or practices new behavior several times (Goldstein, 2003, p. 229).ConclusionTo sum up the paper, the paper has discussed and examined the best practices that can facilitate effective adult learning in the context of organization al learning.However, after learning the transfer process may be negative or positive but should be reinforced through follow up- to training activities to scaffold and help the trainees to use the acquired knowledge in work environment. In order to determine effectiveness of the learning evaluation is vital tool of design to be employed.Main areas that should be evaluated are identification of training needs, learning process, learning outcomes, behavioral change, impact on the organizational performance and organizational outcomes.ReferenceGoldstein, I. L. (2003) Training in Organization; needs, assessment, development and evaluation: pacific groove, BrooksBaud, D. & Gerick, J (1999), Understanding Learning at Work: London: Routledge.Celinski, D. (1983), ‘Trainers Manual: Formulating Training Policy Statements’, Training and Development, June.Campbell, J. P. (2007), ‘Personnel Training and Development’: Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 12, p.565.Kraiger, K., Salas, E. (1997), Improving Training Effectiveness in Work Organization: Mahwah, Erlbaum.Powers, R. (2002). Instructor excellence: San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.