Agricultural science and practice

Agricultural scholarship and causeREVIEW OF belles-lettresINTERCROPPINGInter lopping of grain grasss and grain leguminous set ups is a neglected theme in agricultural science and practice in few(prenominal) conventional and original farming g all overnances (Dahlmann, and Von Fragstein2006). The steadfast rising population in many tropical countries is one of the reasons for tremendous development demand for food. The increasing urbanization receivable to world growing population has busheled food end product leading to irrevocable prejudice of arable put down. Opening up untried land for cultivation whoremonger enhance the decrease of horticulture. Farmers and re essayers should be conscious that cost-benefit ratio bringing new land at a lower place cultivation is sm all tolder than that of increasing merchandise of already cultivated land, which egg whitethorn lead to increase in doing per whole field of operation.Intercropping tenders farmers the opportu nity to eng hop on natures principle of conversion on their farms. Spatial arrangements of plants, place rates, and maturity dates must be considered when planning intercrops. Intercrops can be to a great end fruitful than growing monocropping. Many varied intercrop schemes discombobulate been studied, including involved intercropping, percolate cropping, and customary intercropping provisos. Pest worry benefits can also be cognize from intercropping collectable to augmented variety. Harvesting options for intercrops include hand proceeds, machine harvest for on-farm feed, and animal harvest of the standing crop. closely grain-crop mixtures with similar ripening quantify can non be machine-harvested to bring up a marketable commodity since few buyers purchase fuse grains. Dispite its advantages intercropping is neglected due to multiplex nature of intercropping systems.In intercropping systems an LER measures 1.0, it tells us that the add of land required for c rops grown together is the same as that for these grown in pure stand (i.e., neither disadvantage nor loss due to intercropping over pure stands). LERs above 1.0 demonstrate an advantage to intercropping, magic spell numbers below 1.0 di bout a disadvantage to intercropping. For example, an LER of 1.25 tells us that the egress kindled in the get intercrop system would bewilder got required 25% more land if put in pure stands. If the LER was 0.75, we know the intercrop pass was only 75% of that of the same amount of land that grew pure stands.Pakistan is a subtropical artless having sufficient re authors with heights intensity of sunlight required for plant maturation. Therefore, hap of intercropping of different crops on the same piece of land in a year needs to be explored for effective and efficient utilization of these indispensable re beginnings. Intercropping is being looked as an efficient utilization of these natural resources and economical production system as it increases the production per unit atomic number 18a and time. Presently, interest in intercropping is increasing among the small growers beca implement of their diversified needs and meagre farm openers from the monocropping system. preparedness of cropping system should be done yearly on entire catchment basis. The sign of planning should lead to a proper balance betwixt food, type and fodder crops. When the rainfall is among 500-700 mm with a distinct tip of moisture surplus, intercropping system should be adopted for reformd crop production. blush in naughtyer rainfall areas (750- 1100 mm) intercropping facilitates growing either cereal- leguminous plant or legume-legume system of different maturity patterns. Intercropping minimize risk of crop failure in drylands. Mixed cropping (mixing seeds of twain or more crops and broad casting the mixture) should be avoided as it hinders post-sowing operations. Choice of varieties with in the crops is very important to harn ess total intercropping advantage. Cereal-legume intercropping systems should be advocated to minimize fertilizer use,.? rationalise pest and disease incidence, produce balance foods, ?provide protein rich legume fodder for cattle,? tell apart adequate advantage of growing lenify.Cereal-legume intercropping mutations an important role in subsistence food production in both developed and developing countries, especially in situations of curt piss resources (Tsubo et al., 2005). Intercropping cereals and grain legumes can be very potential for both natural and conservative farmers. The use of land equivalent ratio (LER) as a measure for calculating the cropping advantage of intercrops over sole crops is simple, ignoring hummer inhibition, yield reliability, grain tincture, and minimum advantageous yield are all relevant factors for farmers perspective (Prins and de Wit 2005).Intercropped legumes secure intimately of their atomic number 7 from the atmospheric state and not deal with corn whisky north resources (Adu-Gyamfi et al. ,2007). Increased diversity of the personal structure of plants and increased leaf cover in an intercropping system facilitates to reduce weed infestations once crop are established (Beet1990). Having a renewing of square off system in the solid ground reduces water loss, enhances water uptake and reduce transpiration. The increased transpiration may make the microclimate cooler, which cools the state and decrease evaporation (Innis 1997). In this way during times of water stress, intercropped plants utilize a larger percentage of available water from the field than monocropped plants. Creating windbreaks may also qualify the microclimate. Rows of lemon yellow in a field with a short elevation crop would reduce wind speed above the shorter crop and thusly deceasechance of desiccation (Beet1990). Intercropped legumes place or so of their nitrogen from the atmosphere and not compete with corn whiskey for nitr ogen resources (Adu-Gyamfi et al. ,2007 Vesterager et al.,2008).Diversification of cropping systems, i.e. smaller fields and mixtures of crop species (intercropping) was oft more in vouge Pre World War II. Intercropping, the simultaneously cultivation of more than one species in the same field, is a cropping method, which often get out in a more efficient use of resources, cause more invariable yields in problematic environments and a method to reduce problems with weeds, plant pathogens and nitrogen losses post grain legume harvest.In this context a greater introduction of longterm rotations, intercrops and grain legumes play an important role (Jensen 1997 Karlen1994). Intercropping of cereal and legume crops facilitates to maintain and correct terra firma fertility (Andrew, 1979).Intercropping of legumes with cereals has been popular in tropics (Hauggaard-Nielsen et al.,, 2001 Tsubo et al.,,2005) and rain-fed tracts of the globe (Banik et al.,, 2000 Ghosh, 2004 Agegnehu et al .,, 2006 Dhima et al.,,2007) due to its benefits for spot conservation (Anil et al., 1998), weed control (Poggio, 2005 Banik et al.,,2006), populate resistance (Anil et al.,, 1998), yield enhancemnent (Anil et al.,, 1998 Chen et al.,, 2004), hay curing, forage preservation over pure legumes, more crude protein percentage and protein yield (Qamar et al.,, 1999 Karadag and Buyukburc, 2004), and contols legume expel parasite infections (Fenandez-Aparicio et al.,,2007).Different seeding ratios or planting patterns for cereal-legume intercropping have been accomplished by many researchers (Tsubo et al.,, 2001 Karadag and Buyukburc, 2004 Banik et al.,, 2006 Dhima et al.,, 2007). Competition among mixtures is feeling to be the major characteristic touching yield as compared with monocropping of cereals. Species or cultivar selections, seeding ratios, and inter and intra specific disputation among mixtures may entrance the growth of the species grown in intercropping systems in rain-f ed areas (Santalla et al.,, 2001 Karadag and Buyukburc, 2004 Carr et al.,, 2004 Agegnehu et al.,, 2006 Banik et al.,, 2006 Dhima et al.,, 2007).Various argument indices such as land equivalent ratio (LER), relative displace coefficient (RCC), competitive ratio (CR), actual yield loss (AYL), monetary advantage(MI) and intercropping advantage(IA) have been anticipated to portray contest within and economic advantages of intercropping systems (Banik et al.,, 2000 Ghosh, 2004 Agegnehu et al.,, 2006 Banik et al.,, 2006 Dhima et al.,, 2007). However, such indices have not been used for corn whiskey and common domed stadium intercropping to determine the competition among species and also economic advantages of each intercropping system in the East Mediterranean region. higher(prenominal) monetary returns were obtained compared to sole cropping when bush attics intercropped with sweet maize (Santalla et al.,, 2001). Higher seed yield and net income under planting pattern with cha nging mix-proportions may be explained in higher total productiveness under intercropping with relatively less input investment (Banik et al.,, 2006).Tsubo et al., (2005) formed a manikin model to find out the best planting methods for maize and bean intercrops in sub-arid South Africa. Based on 52 years of run data, they compared the best planting time, optimal water saturation at planting, maize plant density, and bean plant density to receive the highest LER, energy quantify (EV), and monetary value (MV) from the intercropped field. For every combination of factors, a LER greater than 1.0 was found, indicating that intercropping of maize and beans increases total yield. The simulations show that initial primer coat water content has the great influence on intercropping productivity. Bean plant density had no influence on maize or bean yields, indicating that maize yield is not affected by bean intercropping, although bean yields were decreased in the intercropped system (Ts ubo et al., 2005). High densities of maize maximized maize yield and calorie production, but high densities of beans maximized financial return. Decline of external inputs and increases of homegrown feed together with a more efficient alimentary use from leguminous symbiotic dinitrogen (N2) altering (SNF) can result in a decrease of nitrogen and mineral losses. Maize-legume intercropping systems are able to lessen amount of intellectual nourishments taken from the dent in comparasion to a maize monocrop.Organizing the complication of exchanges that are possible due to the physiological constraints of diversity are present in the farm system is life-sustaining part of reducing the need for external inputs and moving toward sustainability (Herrera, 1974). Increasing diversity often allows better resources use efficiency in agro ecosystem because with higher diversity, on that point is larger microhabitat differentiation, allowing the subdivisions species and varieties of the s ystem to grow in an environment ideally adjustment to its unique requirements (Mazaheri and Oveysi, 2004 Willey and Reddy1981 and Yancey, 1994). A key and straight way of rising diversity of an agro ecosystem is intercropping system that allows interaction between the individuals of the different crops and varieties (Mazaheri, 2004 Willey, 1981 and Venkatswarlu1981).Intercropping can add temporal role diversity through the sequential planting of different crops during the same season (Yancey, 1994). Importance of multiple cropping is increasing world food supplies. An LER value of 1.0, indicating no difference in yield between the intercrop and the collection of monocultures (Mazaheri and Oveysi, 2004 and Kurata 1986). Any time value greater than 1.0 indicates a yield advantage for intercrop. A LER of 1.2 for example, indicates that the area planted to monocultures would need to be 20% greater than the area planted to intercrop for the two to produce the same combined yields (Las ter and Furr,1972). Intercropping in cassava was beneficial in increasing the biological yield, tuber equivalent yield and land use efficiency. Cassava tuber equivalent yield, LER, ATER and AHER were higher in cassava + cowpea combinations.(Amanullah et al., 2006). Mixed culture (or intercropping) of legumes and cereals is an old practice in tropical agriculture that dates back to ancient civilization. The main objective of intercropping has been to maximum utilization of resources such as space, light and nutrients (Willey, 1990 Morris and Garrity, 1993 Li et al.,, 2003b), as well as to improve crop quality and quantity (Nel, 1975 Izaurralde et al.,, 1990 Mpairwe et al.,, 2002).Other benefits include water quality control through least use of in primitive fertiliser nitrogen fertilisers that maculate the environment (Crew and Peoples, 2004). The contemporary drift in global agriculture is to search for highly productive, sustainable and environmentally safe cropping systems (Cre w and Peoples, 2004). This has resulted into renewed interest in cropping systems research (Vandermeer, 1989). When two crops are grown in association, interspecific competition or facilitation between plants may take place (Vandermeer, 1989 Zhang et al.,, 2003).Different studies have shown that mixtures of cereals and legumes produce higher grain yields than either crop grown unaccompanied (Mead and Willey, 1980 Horwith, 1984 Tariah and Wahua, 1985 Ofori and Stern, 1987a Lawson and Kang, 1990 Watiki et al.,, 1993 puppet and Runge-Metzger, 1994 Skovgard and Pats, 1999 Rao and Mathuva, 2000 Olufemi et al.,, 2001 Mpairwe et al.,, 2002 Dapaah et al.,, 2003). In such crop mixtures, the yield increases were not only due to enhanced nitrogen nourishment of the cereal component, but also to another(prenominal)(a) unexplored causes (Nel, 1975 Connolly et al.,, 2001).Many of the unknown and less research processes occur in the rhizosphere of mixtures (Connolly et al.,, 2001 Zhang et al.,, 2003, 2004). The rhizosphere soil is the narrow zone of soil neighboring the floor where soil, micro-organisms and grow jointly play key roles in the soil ecosystem. Compared with the bulk soil, the rhizosphere has several(a) biological, physical and chemical soil properties. It is rich in root exudates, and, therefore, play a major role in nutrient mobilisation and microbic activities (Dakora and Phillips, 2002 Dakora, 2003). So far however, brusque attention has been paid to rhizosphere make on crops grown in mixtures (Connolly et al.,, 2001 Zhang et al.,, 2003 2004), where interaction between different organisms is high. The major management practices employed in mix cultures to attain goodish yield includes the enhancement of microclimatic conditions, improved utilisation and recycling of soil nutrients, improved soil quality, provision of favourable habitats for plants and stabilisation of soil, among others (Juma et al.,, 1997).Most of intercropping systems are intent ionally made and manipulated to optimize the use of spatial, temporal, and physical resources both above-and belowground, by maximising positive interactions (facilitation) and minimizing ban ones (competition) among the components (Willey and Osiru, 1972 Willey, 1979 Mead and Willey, 1980 Horwith, 1985 Ofori and Stern, 1986, 1987a, b Jose et al.,, 2000 Silwana and Lucas, 2002). An understanding of the biological and chemical processes and mechanisms involved in the distribution of resources in such systems is indispensable. The complex interactions in legume/cereal cropping systems such as those used by traditional farmers have reliable little research attention (Connolly et al.,, 2001 Zhang et al.,, 2004) because quantitative rhizosphere studies in the field involving complex mixtures are notoriously complex and cumbersome. These conditions are achieved by manipulating management practices such as planting patterns of the mixtures with the selection of appropriate cropping syst ems.Interactions go away occur in the growth process, especially when the component species are exploiting the resources above-and below-ground (Vandermer, 1989 Willey, 1990 Ong et al.,, 1996) from the same niche or at the same time. In crop mixtures, any species utilizing the same combination of resources will be in direct competition. However, based on differences in phenological characteristics of species in asocition, the interaction among them may lead to an increased capture of a limit growth resource (Willey and Osiru, 1972 Willey, 1979 Mead and Willey, 1980 Horwith, 1985 Ofori and Stern, 1986, 1987a,b Silwana and Lucas, 2002) and then amassing larger total yield than the joint production of those species if they were grown separately on an equivalent land area (Mead and Ndakidemi 2527 Willey, 1980 Horwith, 1984 Tariah and Wahua, 1985 Ofori and Stern, 1987a Lawson and Kang, 1990 Watiki et al.,, 1993 Peter and Runge-Metzger, 1994 Myaka, 1995 Asafu-Agyei et al.,, 1997 Skovga rd and Pats, 1999 Rao and Mathuva, 2000 Olufemi et al.,, 2001 Dapaah et al.,, 2003). Thus, mixed cropping systems between cereals and legumes may face a complex series of inter- and intra-specific interaction (Izaurralde et al.,, 1990 Giller and Cadisch, 1995 Evans et al.,, 2001 Li et al.,, 2003c) geared by modifications and utilisation of light, water, nutrients and enzymes.Most annual crop mixtures such as those involving cereals and legumes are grown virtually at the same time, and develop root systems that acquire the same soil zone for resources (Horwith, 1984 Chang and Shibles, 1985a,b Reddy et al.,, 1994 Jensen et al.,, 2003). Under such circumstances, below-ground competition for resources such as nutrients is most likely to take place. For example, research has shown that activities in maize + cowpea intercropping take place between the top 30-45 cm of soil, and their intensity decreased with skill (Maurya and Lal, 1981 McIntyre et al.,, 1997). Because of these interactio ns, cowpea yields can be reduced significantly in relationto that of maize (Watiki et al.,, 1993).In contrast to some negative effects on yield, root systems in mixtures may provide some of the major favorable effects on soil and plants. These include, amongst others, carbon enrichment through higher carbon return (Ridder et al.,, 1990 Vanlauwe et al.,, 1997), discharge of phenolics, phytosiderophores and carboxylic doses as root exudates by companion plants (Dakora and Phillips, 2002 Dakora, 2003). These compounds play a major role in the mineral nutrition of plants. For instance, some studies have displayed that, in P-deficient soils, pigeon pea roots utilize piscidic, malonic, and oxalic sexually transmitted diseases to solubilise Fe-, Ca- and Al-bound P (Ae et al.,, 1990). erstwhile mobilised, P and Fe then become available for uptake by the pigeon pea plant as well as by plant species grown in association and micro flora in the cropping system.This is due to the fact that, t hus far, research efforts on mixed cultures has centered on the intra- and inter-specific competition for light and water, and research reports on competition for nutrients in legumes and cereal mixtures (Connolly et al.,, 2001 Zhang et al.,, 2003, 2004). It is, therefore, imperative to discover how the rhizosphere systems of the associated plant species in mixtures interact under different legume-cereal cropping systems.Rhizospheric pH changes in different management systems in legume/cereal mixturesMany plants have the ability to alter the pH of their rhizosphere (Hoffland et al.,, 1989, 1992 Raven et al.,, 1990 Degenhardt et al.,, 1998 Muofhe and Dakora, 2000 Dakora and Phillips, 2002) and improve nutrient accessibility such as P, K, Ca, and Mg, which are otherwise unyielding and not available to plants (Vandermeer, 1989 Hauggaard- Nielson and Jensen, 2005). For instance, legumes induce numerous reactions that modify the rhizosphere pH (Jarvis and Robson, 1983 McLay et al.,, 1 997 spirit et al.,, 1998, 2001) and influence nutrient uptake (Brady, 1990 Vizzatto et al.,, 1999). For example, Dakora et al., (2000) have shown that due to pH changes in the rhizosphere, Cyclopia genistoides, a tea-producing legume native to South Africa, increased nutrient availability in its rhizosphere by 45 120% for P, 108 161% for K, 120 148% for Ca, 127 225% for Mg and 117 250% for group B (B) compared to bulk non-rhizosphere soil. Hence, legumes may take up higher amounts of base cations, and in the process of balancing internal charge, set free H+ ions into the rhizosphere that results in soil acidification (Jarvis and Robson, 1983 McLay et al.,, 1997 Tang et al.,, 1998, 2001 Sas et al.,, 2001 Dakora and Phillips, 2002 Cheng et al.,, 2004).Other legumes such as alfalfa, chickpea, lupines, and cowpea can release considerable amounts of organic anions and lower their rhizospere pH (Liptone et al.,, 1987 Dinkelaker et al.,, 1989, 1995 Braum and Helmke, 1995 Gilbert et al.,, 1999 Neumann et al.,, 1999 Rao et al.,, 2002 Li et al.,, 2004b), a condition favorable for the hydrolysis of organic P and hence improving P2O5 nutrition for plants and micro organism in the soil. In the same context, white lupine (Lupinus albus) exuded organic acids anions and protons that lowered rhizosphere pH and recovered substantial amount of P2O5 from the soil and made them more available to wheat than when it was grown in solitary cropping system (Horst and Waschkies, 1987 Kamh et al.,, 1999). Similarly, pigeon pea increased P2O5 uptake of the intercropped sorghum by exuding piscidic acid anions that chelated Fe3+ and subsequently released P2O5 from FePO4 (Ae et al.,, 1990). In a field trial, faba bean facilitated P2O5 uptake by maize (Zhang et al.,, 2001 Li et al.,, 1999, 2003b Zhang and Li, 2003). In another comparative study, the ability of chickpea to mobilise organic P2O5 was shown to be greater than that of maize due to greater exudation of protons and organic acids by chickpea in relation to maize (Li et al.,, 2004a). Thus, in mixed cultures, plants such as cereals, which do not have strong rhizosphere acidification capacity can benefit outright from nutrients solubilised by legume root exudates. What is, however, not clearly known is the extent of rhizosphere pH changes in mixed cultures involving nodulated legumes and cereals and their influence on other biological and chemical processes in the soil.N2 FIXATION IN LEGUMES AND THE ASSOCIATEDBENEFITS TO THE CEREAL agentBiological nitrogen fixation by grain legume crops has received a lot of attention (Eaglesham et al.,, 1981 Giller et al.,, 1991 Izaurralde et al.,, 1992 Giller and Cadisch, 1995 Peoples et al.,, 2002) because it is a considerable N source in agricultural ecosystems (Heichel, 1987 Dakora and Keya, 1997). However, studies on N2 fixation in complex cereal-legume mixtures are few (Stern, 1993 Peoples et al.,, 2002). Intercropping usually includes a legume which fixes N2 th at benefits the system, and a cereal component that depends heavily on nitrogen for higher yield (Ofori and Stern, 1986 Cochran and Schlentner, 1995). Controlled studies have shown a significant direct transfer of fixed-N to the associated non-legume species (Eaglesham et al.,, 1981 Giller et al.,, 1991 Frey and Schepp, 1993 Stern, 1993 Elgersma et al.,, 2000 Hgh-Jensen and Schjoerring, 2000 Chu et al.,, 2004). There was evidence that the mineralisation of decomposing legume roots in the soil can boost N availability to the allied crop (Dubach and Russelle, 1994 Schroth et al.,, 1995 Evans et al.,, 2001). In mixed cultures, where row arrangements and the distance of the legume from the cereal are far, nitrogen transfer could decrease. Research has shown that competition between cereals and legumes for nitrogen may in turn kindle N2 fixation action at law in the legumes (Fujita et al.,, 1990 Hardarson and Atkins, 2003). The cereal component effectively drains the soil of N, forcing the legume to fix more N2. Therefore it is important to manipulate and establish how the management practice in legume-cereal mixtures may influence N2 fixation and nutrition in cropping systems.The microbial biomass is influenced by biological, chemical, and physical properties of the plant-soil system. Generally, soil and plant management practices may have greater impact on the level of soil microbial C (Gupta and Germida, 1988 Dick et al.,, 1994 Dick, 1997 Alvey et al.,, 2003). For instance, soil microbial C tend to show the highest determine in cropland and grassland soils and the lowest in bare cultivated soils (Brookes et al.,, 1984 Gupta and Germida, 1988).Monoculture systems are pass judgment to contain less amounts of microbial biomass and activities in comparison to those in mixed cultures (Moore et al.,, 2000). Studies have indicated that legumes accumulated larger amounts of soil microbial C in the soil than cereals (Walker et al.,, 2003). This is attributed to lower C N ratio of legume than that of cereal (Uriyo et al.,, 1979 Brady, 1990). Microbial biomass activities could increase after the improver of an energy source. The stimulation of soil microbial biomass activity by organic amendments is elevated than that induced by organic fertilisers (Bolton et al.,, 1985 Goyal et al.,, 1993 Hflich et al.,, 2000). Soil organic amour content and soil microbial activities, vital for the nutrient dollar volume and long term productivity of soil, are enhanced by the balanced application of nutrient and/or organic matter/manure (Bolton et al.,, 1985 Guan, 1989 Goyal et al.,, 1993 Hflich et al.,, 2000 Kanchikerimath and Singh, 2001). Under conditions of adequate nutrient supply such as P2O5, the microbial biomass C will be increased due to improved plant growth and increased turnover of organic matter in the soil (Bolton et al.,, 1985). Whether the management practices in mixed cultures involving legumes and cereals may favour the stimulation of biol ogical soil activity and, thus, result in a higher turnover of organic substrates in the soil that are utilized by micro-organisms is a good subject to be investigated. Although there is a lot of information that show the relationship between soil management and soil microbial activity, little is known intimately these effects under mixed cropping systems as practised by farmers in the tropical/ subtropical environments (Dick, 1984 Dick et al.,, 1988 Deng and Tabatabai, 1996). In this context, the measurement of their activities could provide effectual information concerning soil health, and also serve as a good index of biological status in different crop production systems.PHOSPHATASE ACTIVITY IN LEGUME/CEREAL MIXTURESPlants have evolved many structural and enzymatic adaptations to bear low inorganic inorganic phosphate availability. This includes transcription activity of acid phosphatases, which tends to increase under P2O5 starvation (Tarafdar and Jungk, 1987 Goldstein, 19 92 Duff et al.,, 1994 del Pozo et al.,, 1999 Haran et al.,, 2000 Baldwin et al.,, 2001 Miller et al.,, 2001 Li et al.,, 2002). Phosphatase enzymes in the soil serve several important functions, and are good indicators of soil fertility (Dick and Tabatai, 1992 Eivazi and Tabatabai, 1997 Dick et al.,, 2000). Under conditions of P2O5 deficiency, acid phosphatase secreted from roots is greater than in advance (Nakas et al.,, 1987 Chrost, 1991Hayes et al.,, 1999 Li et al.,, 1997). Gilbert et al., (1999) found that white lupin roots from P-deficient plants had significantly superior acid phosphatase activity in both the root extracts and the root exudates than comparable samples from P-sufficient plants. At various starvation levels, these enzymes release phosphate from both cellular (Bariola et al.,, 1994) and extra cellular (Duff et al.,, Ndakidemi 2529 1994) organic compounds. The transcripts and activity of phosphate transporters are increased to optimise uptake and remobilisation of phosphate in P-deficient plants (Muchhal et al.,, 1996 Daram et al.,, 1999 Kai et al.,, 2002 Karthikeyan et al.,, 2002 Mudge et al.,, 2002 Versaw and Harrison, 2002).It is thought that these morphological and enzymatic repartees to P starvation are coordinated by both general stress-related and P-specific signaling systems. The amount of acid phosphatase secreted by plants is genetically controlled, and differs with crop species and varieties (Izaguirre-Mayoral and Carballo, 2002) as well as crop management practices (Patra et al.,, 1990 Staddon et al.,, 1998 Wright and Reddy, 2001). whatsoever studies have shown that the amount of enzymes secreted by legumes were 72 % higher than those from cereals (Yadav and Tarafdar, 2001). Li et al., (2004a) found that, chickpea roots were also able to secrete greater amounts of acid phosphatase than maize. The activity of acid phosphatases is expected to be higher in biologically managed systems because of higher quantity of organic C conten t found in those systems. In fact, the activity of acid and alkaline phosphatase was found to correlate with organic matter in various studies (Guan, 1989 Jordan and Kremer, 1994 Aon and Colaneri, 2001). It is, therefore, anticipated that management practices in mixed cultures that induce P stress in the rhizosphere, may also affect the secretion of these enzymes. To date, there have been few studies examining the influence of cropping system on the phosphatase activity in the rhizosphere of most legumes and cereals grown in Pakistan. Understanding the kinetics of enzyme activities in these systems is crucial for their assessment their interactions as in turn their activities may regulate nutrient uptake and plant growth in the ecosystem. progeny OF ORGANIC, BIOLOGICAL ANDCHEIMCAL FERTLIZERS ON CROPS AND SOILApplication of organic manures has various advantages such as increasing soil physical properties, water keeping capacity, and organic carbon content apart from supplying good quality of nutrients. The addition of organic sources could increase the yield through improving soil productivity and higher fertilizer use efficiency (Santhi, and Selvakumari, 2000). High and sustained yield could be obtained with judicious and balanced fertilization combined with organic manures (Kang, B.T. and V. Balasubramanian, 1990). protect long-term soil fertility by maintaining soil organic matter levels to certain extent, sustaining soil biological activity and careful mechanical intervention, providing crop nutrient directly by using relatively insoluble nutrient sources which are made available to the plants by the action of soil micro-organisms, nitrogen self sufficiency through the biological nitrogen fixation (Hossain et al.,,2004) as well as effective recycling of organic materials including livestock wastes organic manuring (Safdar, 2002).Soil degradation which is brought about by loss of organic matter serial continuous cropping becomes aggravated when inorganic fertilizers are applied repeatedly. This is because crop response to applied fertilizer depends on soil organic matter (Agboola and Omueti, 1982).Among differnret manues fowl manure is highly nutrient enriched organic manure since solid and gas excreta are excreted simultaneously resulting in no urine loss. In fresh domestic fowl excreta uric acid or urate is the most plentiful nitrogen compound (40-70 % of total N) while urea and ammonium are present in petite amounts (Krogdahl, and Dahlsgard. 1981). Cooperband et al., (2002) assessed phosphorus value of different- age poultry bed clothing composts and raw poultry litter. Available soil P was the highest in plots amended with 15-month old compost, followed by raw poultry litter amended plots. Poultry manure is an excellent organic fertilizer, as it contains high nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other essential nutrients. In contrast to mineral fertilizer, it adds organic matter to soil which improves soil structures, nutrien t retention, aeration, soil moisture holding capacity, and water infiltration (Deksissa et al.,, 2008). It was also indicated that poultry manure more promptly supplies P to plants than other organic manure sources (Garg and Bahla, 2008). As the use of poultry manure becomes an integral part of sustainable agriculture, demand for poultry products increases and pasturelands as well as croplands become nutrient saturated, which has ultimately increased water quality and public health concerns. In addition to high N and P content, raw poultry manure has a potential source of pathogen or E .coli (Jamieson et al.,, 2002 Bustamante et al.,, 2007) and endocrine disruptors (Deksissa et al.,, 2007).High and sustained crop yield can be obtained with judicious and balanced NPK fertilization combined with organic matter amendment (Kang and Balasubramanian, 1990).The benefits